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From: Chris
Date: 11/23/02
Time: 3:17:20 PM
Remote Name: 216.180.65.54
Team, Please look over this and see if we need to add something or take something out. I found several more causal chains. I am going to post this on Sunday night around 9:00. I will be checking to see your suggestions. Appreciate it! Chris
Members of the Team: Christa Bolton, Dorinda South, Stacie White, Josh Winters, and Chris Higginbottom
Hurricanes and the Four Spheres:
Introduction: This ESS report will deal with the issues of Hurricanes in relation to each of the four spheres on the Earth. It will include the atmosphere, lithosphere, biosphere, and the hydrosphere. There is enough evidence stated in the following ESS report to theorize that hurricanes can and will have a possible devastating effects on our Earth and its living things.
Hurricanes: Hurricanes are a part of a weather system known as “tropical cyclones.” These severe tropical storms develop over the warm tropical and subtropical North Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans and have sustained winds in excess of 64 knots (74 mph). The word hurricane originated from the Caribbean God of evil, Hurricane. The word hurricane is said to mean “big wind.” Hurricanes have been referred to as “The Greatest Storms on Earth.” The title is well earned, as these massive storms can be 600 miles across producing dangerous winds, torrential rains, and flooding. Hurricanes form from clusters of thunderstorms. This pre-existing weather disturbance combined with moisture, warm tropical oceans, and relatively light winds are variables that can cause a hurricane to form. The heat from the warm ocean water is the primary source of energy for hurricanes. High relative humidity reduces in the middle or lower troposphere should also be present. The high humidity reduces the amount of evaporation in clouds and maximizes latent heat released because there is more precipitation. This concentration of latent heat is critical to the driving force of the system. The vertical wind shear in a tropical cyclone’s environment is also a factor in the storm’s development. Wind shear is defined as the amount of change in the wind’s direction or speed with increasing altitude. When the wind shear is weak, the storms that are part of the cyclone grow vertically, and the latent heat from condensation is released into the air directly above the storm, aiding in development. When there is stronger wind shear, this is a sign that the storms will become more slanted and the latent heat is dispersed over a much larger area. The winds of a hurricane are constructed around a central “eye” area, storm clouds wrap in a counter-clockwise motion. From space it has the appearance of a giant pinwheel. This “eye wall” of clouds, wind and rain, is the most destructive part of the storm. In fact, it is the eye wall that creates the eye, since the rapid spinning clouds in the wall reduce the pressure in the eye and suck out any clouds that may be present there. Hurricanes will weaken rapidly when they travel over land or colder ocean waters (locations with sufficient heat and/or moisture). Even so, they can produce high waves and tides up to 25 feet above normal. This is extremely destructive to property. An example of a severe hurricane is Hurricane Andrew. In 1992, this storm caused 50 deaths and over $30 billion dollars in property damage. The town of Homestead, Florida was practically destroyed.
Resources: http://www.yatcom.com/networl/weather/whatis.html http://www.firstscience.com/site/srticles/hurricanes/asp http://www.casde.unl.edu/vn/glossary/earth-h.htm http://www.flagemergency.com/weather/effects.asp http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/HAW/index.htm http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/weather.html HBJ School Dictionary, Third Edition. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1990
Background on Hurricane Dennis: Hurricane Dennis was probably the most unpredictable hurricane of the 1999 Hurricane Season. It stalled, turned, and wobbled its way along the East Coast of the United States for 10 days. It was probably the wackiest storm since Hurricane Felix in 1995. The category two hurricane’s highest winds were recorded at 105 miles per hour, its highest wind gusts were recorded at over 120 miles per hour, and its lowest barometric pressure recorded at the surface was 28.41 inches/962 mb. Hurricane Dennis was the fourth named storm of the 1999 season and the third hurricane of the 1999 season. It stayed offshore for ten days, bringing winds and waves to the coast of North Carolina and plagued much of the East Coast with heavy surf and riptides. It finally made landfall, over the coast of North Carolina as a tropical storm. http://members.aol.com/windgusts/Dennis.html Dennis formed in the western Atlantic a couple hundred miles east of the Turks and Caicos Islands late on August 23, 1999. The system moved slowly west-northwest for the next five days. The system intensified into a tropical storm on the afternoon of the 24th and a hurricane early on the 26th. Dennis reached peak intensity of 105 mph, which is a category two on the Saffir-Simpson scale, on the afternoon of the 28th and maintained this intensity until early on the 30th and part of the 31st. By this happening, it sustained tropical storm force winds, gusts to hurricane force, large waves and high surf. The hurricane turned northeast away from the coast on the morning of the 30th and began to accelerate later that day while moving to the east-northeast. Dennis stalled about 150 miles east of Cape Hatteras on the morning of the 31st and then began to drift westward and weaken. During the first couple of days of September, Dennis continued to weaken as was downgraded to a tropical storm as it drifted slowly to the southeast along the lower Outer Banks. The storm turned to the northeast on the 4th and made landfall over the Outer Banks between Cape Lookout and Ocracoke as a tropical storm. http://nwsilm.wilmington.net/tropics/past_storms/1995_1999/dennis/dennis.html
The Atmosphere:
The atmosphere is the blanket of air that surrounds the earth. It reaches over 348 miles from the surface of the Earth, but we are only able to see what occurs close to the ground. With the use of sensitive instruments from space, we are able to get a better view of the functioning of our atmosphere. The atmosphere absorbs the energy from the Sun, recycles water and other chemicals, and works with the electrical and magnetic forces to provide a moderate climate. The atmosphere also protects us from high-energy radiation and the frigid vacuum of space. The atmosphere is primarily composed of Nitrogen, Oxygen, and Argon. Other components that are present are the water, "greenhouse" gases or Ozone and Carbon Dioxide. Four layers of the atmosphere have been identified based on temperature changes, chemical composition, movement, and density. The first layer is the troposphere. This starts at the Earth's surface and extends 5 to 9 miles. This part of the atmosphere is the densest. The temperature drops from about 17 to -52 degrees Celsius the higher up you go. Almost all weather is in this region. The tropopause separates the troposphere from the next layer. The tropopause and the troposphere are known as the lower atmosphere. The next layer is the stratosphere. This layer starts just above the troposphere and extends to 31 miles high. This part of the atmosphere is dry and less dense. The temperature in this region increases gradually to -3 degrees Celsius, due to the absorbing of ultraviolet rays. The ozone layer, which absorbs the ultraviolet radiation, is in this layer. Ninety-nine percent of "air" is located in the troposphere and stratosphere. The stratopause separates the stratosphere from the next layer. The third layer is the mesosphere, which starts just above the stratosphere and extends to 53 miles high. In this layer, the temperatures again fall as low as -93 degrees Celsius as altitude is increased. The mesopause separates the mesophere from the thermosphere. Scientists call the regions of the stratosphere and the mesosphere, along with the stratopause and mesopause, the middle atmosphere. This area has been closely studied on the ATLAS Spacelab mission series. The fourth and final layer is the thermosphere, which starts just above the mesosphere and extends to 372 miles high. The temperatures go up as altitude is increased because of the Sun's energy. Temperatures in this region can go as high as 1,727 degrees Celsius. This layer is known as the upper atmosphere. Beyond these layers is the exosphere. This layer starts at the top of the thermosphere and continues until it merges with space. Hydrogen and Helium are the prime components here and are only present at extremely low densities. http://liftoff.msfc.nasa.gov/academy/space/atmosphere.html
Sphere to Event Interactions:
A>E: Like thunderstorms, hurricanes take place in the atmosphere, the envelope of air that surrounds the earth and presses on its surface. Hurricanes are formed from simple complexes of thunderstorms. Thunderstorm activity is associated with cumulonimbus clouds that generate heavy rainfall, thunder, lighting, and occasionally tornadoes and hurricanes. However, these thunderstorms can only grow to hurricane strength with cooperation from both the ocean and the atmosphere. First of all, the ocean water itself must be warmer than 26.5 degrees Celsius (80 degrees Fahrenheit). This is why you only see hurricanes in gulf coastal regions between June 1st and November 30th. Hurricanes begin when very warm moist air over the ocean rises rapidly. The heat and moisture from this warm water is ultimately the source of energy for hurricanes. Relative to having warm ocean water, high relative humidity in the lower and middle troposphere are also required for hurricane development. The troposphere is the bottom layer of the atmosphere, which consists of air closet to the surface of the earth. It contains over half of all the air in the atmosphere. Temperatures decrease with an increase in altitude. It is the chief focus of meteorologists, because it is in this layer that essentially all important weather phenomena occur. Relative humidity may be defined as the ratio of the water vapor density to the saturation water vapor density usually expressed in percent. In other words, it indicates how moist the air is. If humidity is high, it reduces the amount of evaporation in clouds and maximizes the latent heat released because there is more precipitation. When moisture in the rising warm air condenses, a large amount of energy in the form of latent is released. This heat increases the force of the rising air. Therefore, the latent heat fuels the engine of a hurricane system. Latent heat is heat released or absorbed by a substance, in this case water vapor, as it changes its state. When water vapor condenses in to liquid it releases heat into the surrounding atmosphere. The atmosphere around this condensation then warms. Because warm air rises and cold air sinks, the warmer air takes up more space. The expansion of the air forces more air outside away from the center of the storm and the atmospheric pressure decreases. Atmospheric pressure is the weight of the air above. At sea level the average pressure is slightly more than 1000 millibars. As the surface pressure decreases, a larger pressure gradient is formed, and more air converges, or meets, towards the center of the storm. For example in the Western Hemisphere, from the outer edge to the center, the barometric pressure has, on occasion, dropped 60 milliners from 1000 milliners to 950 milliners. A steep pressure gradient, therefore, generates the rapid, inward spiraling winds of a hurricane. This creates more surface convergence and causes warmer, moist surface air to rise above the surface. Therefore, the low-pressure area acts like a chimney – warm air is drawn in at the bottom, rises in a column, cools, and spreads out. Moist tropical air continues to be drawn into column of rising air, releasing more latent heat and thus sustaining the process. In other words, this causes the storm to grow and form more strength, which in turn forms a hurricane. As the inward rush of warm, moist surface air approaches the heart of the storm, it turns upward and ascends in a rung of cumulonimbus clouds. The greatest speeds and heaviest rainfall occur in the eye wall. Surrounding the eye wall are curved bands of clouds that trail away in a spiral fashion. At the center of the storm is the eye of the hurricane. It is usually a zone about 12.5 miles in diameter. This is where the precipitation ceases and winds decrease. It only gives a brief break from extreme weather in the enormous curving wall clouds that surround it. The air within the eye gradually descends and heats by compression, making it the warmest part of the storm. After forming, a hurricane begins to move in a westerly direction, and then curves toward the north. The Coriolis Effect moves most storm systems. Everything that moves over the surface of the earth is affected by the rotation of the earth on its axis. The rotation causes surface winds in the Northern Hemisphere to turn to the right and those in the Southern Hemisphere to turn to the left, hence the Coriolis Effect. As mentioned earlier, the air in a hurricane travels in a spiral within the storm. In the Northern Hemisphere, the spiraling winds travel counterclockwise – the opposite of the way the hands of a clock move. If you live in the southern U.S. you will notice the clouds will travel in the opposite direction until the eye of the storm has passed, then winds will blow to the east as it is supposed to, according to the Coriolis Effect. Hurricanes can travel 1,000 to 3,000 km and last for 9 to 12 days over the ocean. Eventually it moves over land or colder water. There the source of warm, moist air is cut off, and the hurricane weakens. When it hits land it can do harmful damage to the coastal areas. Resources: Tarbuck, Edward J. & Lutgens, Fredrick K. “Earth Science.” Prentice Hall, New Jersey, Ninth Edition, 1997, P. 444, 381, 483, 484. Lauber, Patrica. “Hurricanes: Earth’s Mightiest Storms.” Scholastic Press, NY. 1996. P. 19-21. Dispezio, Michael, M.A., Lisowski, Marylin, Ph.D, etc. “Science Insights: Exploring Earth and Space.” Addison – Wesley Publishing Company NY. 1996. P. 450, 403. Ramsey, William L., Phillips, Clifford R. etc. “Modern Earth Science.” Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc. NY. Teachers Edition, 1989. P. 401, 402, 433. http:ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/hurr/mvmt.rxml http://www.usatoday.com/weather/tg/whurlife/whurlife.htm
A>E Hurricane Formation – Tropical cyclones are born in moist tropical air. About every 4-5 days, a tropical wave of low pressure moves west in the trade winds. Some tropical waves develop into tropical depressions, tropical storms, and hurricanes. In developing tropical cyclones, deep thunderstorms develop. Air pressure drops at the surface, forming low pressure. Low pressure attracts warm moist air near the ocean’s surface. The Coriolis force causes these low-level winds to spiral in a counterclockwise direction around the center of the low in the Northern Hemisphere. Winds swirl clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. Typically, an “eye” forms when the tropical cyclone reaches hurricane strength, but an eye is not necessary for a tropical cyclone to be a hurricane. Think of a hurricane as a large heat engine. The fuel is moisture from warm ocean water. The moisture is converted to heat in the thunderstorms that form. Spiral rain bands that surround the tropical cyclone's core help feed the circulation more heat energy. As air nears the center, it rises rapidly and condenses into clouds and rain. The condensation releases tremendous amounts of heat into the atmosphere. The result is lower surface pressure and strengthening winds. In this way, the tropical cyclone’s engine refuels itself, concentrating its power in a donut-shaped area, called the eye wall, surrounding the center. The eye wall typically conations the strongest surface winds. Sinking air at the center clears the tropical cyclone of clouds and forms the “eye.” Falling surface pressure can only occur if air mass is removed from the circulation center. This is accomplished by wind flowing out away from the circulation in the upper atmosphere. http://www.weather.com/enyclopedia/tropical/forecast.html
A>E Hurricane Winds – The winds of a hurricane range from 74 miles per hour (65 knots) in a minimal storm to greater than 155 miles per hour (136 knots) in a catastrophic one. Often accurate readings of high wind gusts during landfall are impossible because the anemometers at reporting wind stations are ripped from their foundations. Wind is responsible for much of structural damage caused by hurricanes. High winds uproot trees and tear down power lines. The maximum winds from fast moving and powerful storms may remain high, even when the storm is well inland. Often this is actual wind speed combined with the speed of the storm. For example, Hurricane Hazel moved through western New York on October 15, 1954, giving Buffalo winds near 100 miles per hour. http://www.weather.com/encyclopedia/tropical/effect.html
A>E Hurricanes require a special set of conditions. Warm seawater is evaporated and is absorbed by the surrounding air. The warmer the ocean the more water that evaporates. The warm, moist air rises, lowering the atmospheric pressure of the air beneath. In any area of low atmospheric pressure, the column of air that extends from the surface of the water, or land, to the top of the atmospheric is relatively less dense and, therefore, weighs relatively less. Air tends to move from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure, creating wind. In the Northern Hemisphere, the earth’s rotation causes the wind to swirl into a low-pressure area in a counterclockwise direction. In the Southern Hemisphere, the winds rotate clockwise around a low. This effect of the rotating earth on wind flow called the Coriolis Effect. The Coriolis Effect increases in intensity farther from the equator. To produce a hurricane, a low-pressure area must be more than 5 degrees farther from the equator. Hurricanes seldom occur close to the equator. http://www.aolsvc.worldbook.aol.com
A>E Hurricanes last an average of 3 to 14 days. A long-lived storm may wander 3,000 to 4,000 miles, typically moving over the sea at speeds of 5 to 20 miles per hour. All hurricanes eventually move toward higher latitudes where there is colder air, less moisture, and greater wind shears. These conditions cause the storm to weaken and die out. The end comes quickly if a hurricane moves over land, because it no longer receives heat energy and mixture from warm tropical water. Heavy rains may continue, however, even after the winds have diminished. http://www.aolsvc.worldbook.aol.com
A>E The atmosphere affects the intensity of hurricanes. From global climate models, we know that a doubling of the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration will likely increase sea surface temperature around the globe. This sea surface temperature increase could have an impact on the severity of hurricanes. Using the increased sea surface temperatures, it has been estimated that in the world’s tropical oceans, hurricane strength could increase by thirty to sixty-percent. In this specific region of Florida, it is estimated that hurricane intensity could increase by about forty percent. http://www.meteor.iastate.edu/gcp/studentpapers/1996/climate/sorensen.html
Event to Sphere Interactions:
E>A: Scientists tracking the global warming gas carbon dioxide (CO2) believe that hurricanes pump more CO2 into the air by rolling oceans. The ocean soaks up about a third of the CO2 coming from fossil fuel burning and forest clearance. But new research shows that hurricanes pump some of the CO2 back into the air and could hold important implications for global warming. Scientists from the Bermuda Biological Station for Research at Berry Beach explain that “hurricanes” are making oceans lose CO2. This enhances the accumulation of the climate warming gas in the atmosphere. In 1995, hurricane Felix passed over the research center giving scientists an ideal opportunity to measure hurricane effects. They form that Felix, plus two other hurricanes (Luis and Marilyn) increased summertime feedback of Co2 to the atmosphere by 55%. At the same time, each hurricane cooled the seawater (near the surface) by 7 degrees Fahrenheit for two to three weeks at a time. Scientists have known that hurricanes cool the sea as they roll the surface and bring cooler water up from below. Seasonally, the ocean soaks up CO2 from the atmosphere in winter and gives back more than it absorbs in the summer. Cooler water has less ability to hold CO2. Splashing waves and breaking bubbles also release CO2. Hurricanes enhance that feedback. Some scientists speculate that warming would bring more hurricanes and increase hurricane intensity. That, in turn, would increase hurricane CO2 feedback. Research shows that it is very important to consider many factors when increase hurricane CO2 feedback and it is very important to consider many factors when trying to determine how one change in the earth’s atmosphere will affect other parts of the environment. Global warming may cause many other side effects, such as changing circulation patents, and various winds. Certain circulation patterns and winds are very important to the development of hurricanes. Changing these patterns may adversely affect hurricane formation.
Resources: http://www.csmonitor.com/durable/1998/09/03/p4sl.htm http://www.orgins.org/orgs/reasons/hurricanes.html Event to Sphere Interactions:
E>A: A hurricane can be viewed as a giant engine that must be fed a steady stream of fuel to keep it up and running. The fuel for a hurricane is warm, moist air. When a hurricane moves inland, its energy supply is cut off, and the hurricane begins to lose its strength. Land cannot provide the hurricane with the necessary moisture. Contact with land slows the storm’s winds, and the hurricane breaks apart. Even the death of a hurricane can create violent weather. Tornadoes can spin off from a hurricane’s fierce winds. This occurs as air of different densities or air from different directions collides into each other (known as a convergence of air). The two air masses cannot go through each other, so they veer around each other, creating a spinning column of air. When this comes into contact with the earth’s surface, a tornado is born. As the winds in the tornado begin to spin, the warmer or more buoyant air parcel starts rising. This stretches the rotating storm into a skinner band. This has been described as a funnel cloud stretching from the surface of the Earth up into a storm. This funnel cloud behaves like a giant vacuum cleaner, sucking up everything in its path. Although the tornado delivers a punch much less powerful that the total energy contained in the hurricane that gives birth to it, what makes a tornado particularly deadly is that their energy is packed into a very small area. Within that small area, tornadoes kill by sucking up heavy objects as large as cars, trucks, and even railroad cars, throwing them, like heavy weapons, through buildings. The strong winds associated with tornadoes can move materials such as boulders, rocks, sands, and soils, thus contributing to erosion of the land. Tornadoes are most likely to occur in the right-front quadrant of the hurricane. They may also be found embedded in the rain bands (bands of clouds accompanied by heavy rain showers and hurricane-force winds), well away from the center of the hurricane. In general, tornadoes associated with hurricanes are less intense than those that occur in the Great Plains of the U.S. The effects of tornadoes, added to the larger area of hurricane-force winds, can produce substantial damage. Some of the most dangerous hurricanes have made landfall on the U.S. mainland in the states of Texas. Perhaps the hurricane that was responsible for the most recorded tornadoes was Hurricane Beulah in 1967. It spawned at least 115 tornadoes when it made landfall in Brownsville and Corpus Christi, Texas. Other hurricanes that have spawned tornadoes include Hurricane Carla (Central Texas, 1961) that resulted in 8 tornadoes, Hurricane Allen (Brownsville, Texas 1980) that resulted in 29 tornadoes, and Hurricane Alicia (Galveston Island, Texas 1983) that resulted in 23 tornadoes. Hurricane Allen spawned 14 tornadoes as it made landfall between Galveston and Houston; 9 tornadoes touched down the next day between Houston and Tyler. All but two of these tornadoes were small, with winds between 40-72 miles per hour. The strongest tornado occurred near Tyler, with winds in the 113-157 mph range. Studies have shown that more than half of the land falling hurricanes produce at least one tornado. When associated with hurricanes, hail or a lot of lightning does not usually accompany tornadoes. Tornado productions can occur for days after landfall when the tropical cyclone remnants an identifiable low-pressure circulation.
Resources: Galliano, Dean, Hurricanes, The Rosen Publishing Group, New York, NY 2000 Rooter, Charles, Tornadoes, Creative Education, Mankato, MN, 1998 http://wvec.com/knowledge/tornadoes.htm http://passporttoknowlegde.com/storm/what/tornad.htm http://hurricanes.noaa.gov/prepare/tornadoes.html http://www.marchfield.k12wi.us/science/biology/eproject/erosion.htm http://www.usatoday.com/weather/hurricane/history/walicia.htm
The Lithosphere:
The lithosphere contains all of the cold, hard solid land of the planet's crust, the semi-solid land underneath the crust and the liquid land near the center of the earth. The surface of the lithosphere is very uneven and divided into several layers. The solid, semi-solid and liquid land of the lithosphere of the earth can be pushed and deformed like silly putty in response to the warmth of the Earth, such that the rocks actually flow. The flowing lithosphere carries the crust of the earth, including the continents, on its back. The rocky material that comprises the lithosphere of the earth is special, however, because the rocks contain water. These special minerals have the ability to slide against each other. The lithosphere is divided up into approximately 14 pieces called tectonic plates. These plates slide over the semi-molten layers below and form the continents and ocean basin. The process of moving plates is known as the Plate Tectonic Theory. Many calculations about the earth are needed to know the thickness of the lithosphere. Some assume that it is 120km, while others think it is closer to 250km. A study by Manga and O'Connell shows that the lithosphere probably has a variable thickness -250 km under continents and 100 km under the oceans.
Event to Sphere Interactions:
E>L Hurricane force winds can also affect the lithosphere. The high winds associated with the hurricane can result in erosion the beaches and the surrounding area. Roofing material, siding and other small items left outside become projectiles during the storm. The blowing debris will also damage the top layer of the lithosphere. The multiple layers of the earth's lithosphere will continue to be worn down by the trees and other plant life will be uprooted, damaging the lithosphere.
E>L The short-term evolution of landforms along a coastline represents the interaction of wave action with processes in the continental interior and human activity. The coastline is a dynamic environment that advances or retreats depending upon the balance between the supply of sediment and the material removed by wave erosion. This balance may upset by geological processes that act at a variety of time scales. Seasonal variations in stream flow and storm activity affect the volume of sediment supplied to the coast and the rate of erosion. Climate cycles that result in increasing or decreasing sea levels will have long-term effects measured in decades or centuries. Finally, tectonic cycles measured in hundreds or thousands of years may continually revitalize rugged coastlines by periodic uplifts. The role plate tectonics plays in influencing the physical character of the coastline is exemplified by the contrast between the sandy beaches of the Atlantic shore (passive margin) and the rocky headlands of the Pacific coast (active margin). Some areas in the Gulf of Mexico coastline are actively subsiding. Sediment deposited in a delta at the mouth of the Mississippi River is submerged below sea level during compaction. Subsidence rates are approximately 1 meter per century. In the past this subsidence was compensated by additional sediment supplied during flood events. However, the construction of levees along the river’s channel prevents the redistribution of sediment during flooding.
http://www.mhhe.com/earrhsci/geology/mcconnell/oceans/coast.html
E>L Storm surge flooding is a major cause of hurricane damage. Howling winds around the hurricane create storm surge by piling water up. In the ocean, this dome of water sinks and follows as the storm nears land, the rising sea floor blocks the water’s escape and it comes ashore as a deadly intense hurricane can send a dome of water more than 18 feet deep ashore as the storm hits land. When the water drops this quickly onto beaches it causes erosion and gully formation.
http://www.usatoday.com/weather/tg/wsurge/
E>L: Strong winds from a hurricane can spread vegetation and soil for miles around. The soil can be spread locally and also farther inland. This can have positive and negative effects. On the positive side, soil and vegetation can be spread elsewhere bringing newfound life. On the negative side, a rich soiled site can be ripped bare by torrent winds of a hurricane.
http://davem2.cotf.edu/mtpe/courses/idaho/ievents/0038.html
E>L: Huge mounds of water imploding on the earth’s surface called “storm surges” can cause severe beach erosion. These implosions of water can also cause temporary and permanent changes in water channels and other waterways. Other effects of this are shoreline changes, movement of soil vegetation, and further extensive flooding.
http://davem2.cotf.edu/mtpe/courses/idaho/ievents/0038.html ge.htm
The Biosphere:
The biosphere is the Earth’s thin zone of air, soil, and water in which life is supported. It ranges from about 6 mi. into the atmosphere to the depths of the deepest ocean floor. The biosphere has sustained life for hundreds of millions of years. The biosphere can be subdivided into various regions of growth patterns called biomes. http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages Barrier islands are by their very nature dynamic—the one constant being constant change. The area between the barrier islands called the Outer Banks and the eastern mainland is a set of habitats called an estuarine system. Here lives a remarkable community of life ranging from the magnificent osprey to microscopic zooplankton. It is a richly diverse community whose variety is dependent on the variables of water level, salinity, and temperature. The geographical location puts this area at the northern extremity of southern biota and at the southern extremity of northern biota. In North Carolina, estuaries vary considerably from broad shallow sounds, to narrow bodies of water, with differing water levels, basin types, tidal patterns, salinity, temperature and sediment patterns that make each estuary unique, and are home to equally unique communities of plants and animals. Each habitat creates “niches,” roles that each organism plays in maintaining the balance of the natural system. These patterns of life, who eats and produces what, are described as food chains or food webs. Ninety-five percent of the commercial fish species caught in the state depend on the nutrients and shelter of the estuaries during some part of their lives. Powerful storms, like Dennis, create the most visible and dramatic land reformation changes simply because they redistribute large quantities of soil in a relatively short period of time. The winds and especially the storm surge of hurricanes push barrier island sands toward the mainland in what is termed over wash. The over wash may bury and smother everything on the landward side of the islands including forests, high and low tidal salt marshes, herbaceous grasslands, woody scrub vegetation, and sea grass beds. Inlets—openings between the islands—may be opened or closed, permanently changing the salinity in the brackish water of the sounds. ("http://www.wetmap.org/Cape_Hatteras?Suppliment/ch_background") Torrential rains, that frequently accompany hurricanes, can cause flooding, increasing sediment flow from rivers feeding the estuary (that can smother aquatic plants and animals) and rapidly lowering salinity of brackish water on the western side of the sounds. Increased organic pollution brought by the flooding can cause bacterial overgrowth that rapidly depletes the oxygen level of the water and produces large fish kills, which in turn add to the organic matter, creating “dead zones” where nothing but bacteria live until the waters can be remixed and cleansed. Disease and starvation may flow up the food chain as animals dependent on other life forms are deprived of their food source. Mosquitoes, on the other hand, may thrive in newly created, stagnant water bodies, acting as vectors to spread disease to man and animals alike. ("http://www.nitrate.com/nov99.htm") Inland forests may be stressed by both the high winds and flooding rains of the hurricane. Many animals are no doubt injured or killed in such storms. ("http://lternet.edu/hfr/data/hf002/hf002.html") However, in the long term, hurricanes may bring about greater diversity within the forests by opening the canopy, bringing down old trees that act as nurseries for young seedlings, and providing better conditions for more diverse populations of plants and the animals that live on/with them. ("http://www.uga.edu/srel/hugo.htm")
Event to Sphere Interactions:
E>B: Hurricanes are an important part of the natural scheme of things because they help clean out species that might otherwise dominate an ecosystem. They also stir up much needed oxygen in oceanic "dead zones." They rekindle growth of opportunistic plants and provide critical food for animals. Their beneficial effects start before they ever get close to the shore. Hurricanes vertically mix up the water column, which breaks up dead zones of oxygen-poor water. As hurricanes get closer to the shore, this mixing breaks up pockets of fresh water that are infested with bacteria from stream run-off. Along the coast, strong currents created by a hurricane's storm surge flush out sediment, rubble and weeds from coral reefs, and blast away fungal diseases that damage coral. The storms also draw up nutrient-rich water from below, which provides a major food source for sea life. http://www.explorezone.com/archives/99_09/20_hurricane_benefits.htm
E>B: Hurricanes bring with them huge amounts of rain. A big hurricane can dump dozens of inches of rain in just a day of two, much of it inland. That amount of rain can create inland flooding that can totally devastate a large area around the hurricane's center. High-sustained winds cause structural damage. These winds can also roll cars, blow over trees and erode beaches (both by blowing sand and by blowing the waves into the beach). The prevailing winds of a hurricane push a wall of water, called a storm surge, in front of it. If the storm surge happens to synchronize with a high tide, it causes beach erosion and significant inland flooding. Hurricane winds often spawn tornadoes, which are smaller, more intense cyclonic storms that cause additional damage. This combination of winds, rain and flooding can level a coastal town and cause significant damage to cities far from the coast. http://www.howstuffworks.com/hurricane5.htm
E>B With hurricanes being as powerful as they are it is not surprising that upon landfall they cause damage and destruction. Even when the hurricane has yet to make landfall, its effects can be dangerous. However, most of the damage caused to man and nature occur as a hurricane makes landfall. Each phenomenon (strong winds, storm surge, flooding, tornadoes, and rip tides) can turn a hurricane into a home-wrecker, a nature-destroyer, and even a killer. Some tropical storms that make landfall cause damage in these ways, but very rarely do they do so in as significant a manner as does hurricanes. Source: http://ww2010.atmos,uiuc.edu(Gh)mtr/hurr/dmg/home.rxml
E>B: Approximately 75 % of the worlds population lives within 50 miles of marine coastline, and when a hurricane comes ashore the various damages to humans and animals can reach catastrophic proportions. One example would be in how humans prepare for hurricanes. When hurricane watches or warnings are issued in the United States by the various weather authorities, home and business owners leap into action to protect their investments. Homeowners and businesses alike are encouraged to take whatever precautions they feel necessary, such as boarding up windows with plywood material, securing mechanical equipment (cars, tractors, trailers, etc.) and secure any belonging that are apart to be swept away with the fierce winds. Farmers are faced with a choice of whether to board up their livestock or allow them to fend for themselves. When an order to evacuate is given entire communities become as a ghost town, to include the majority of the police officers. It is during this time period prior to the arrival of the hurricane itself. The fierce winds can completely level homes and cause tremendous damage to buildings. Roofs can be torn off, cars destroyed by winds carrying various objects, windows shattered and glass transformed into minute weapons of destruction, and building material such as bricks and advertisement signs ripped from the facade. Rains only worsen the damage, causing flash floods to occur which can sweep cars and property away in mere minutes. Agriculturally, crops such as cotton, corn, soy beans, fruit bearing trees and livestock can be severely damaged, destroyed or killed by the hurricane forces of water and wind. On the human side, the losses are just as devastating with loss of life being the most severe. Children and adults who witness first hand the effects of a hurricane can be emotionally and physically scarred by hurricanes. Some of the physical after effects suffered by humans have come from drowning, hypothermia, cholera, heart attacks, violent crimes, carbon monoxide poisoning, suicides, and animal bites. Carbon monoxide poisoning was caused by people who used gas powered generators to restore electricity, and animal bites because pet owners had abandoned their animals that were then legal to wander the streets. Cholera and other health related drinking contaminated water or returning to moldy homes caused problems. Lastly, the restoration process takes an enormous toll as well. Homes and business must be cleaned and repaired, furnishings or material things replaced and life in general starting over. Examples of how much damage hurricanes can cost are (in billions): Hurricane Andrew (FL, LA) 1992 $30.5, Hurricane Hugo (SC) 1989 $8.5, Hurricane Agnes (FL, Northeast) 1972 $7.5, and Hurricane Fran (NC) 1996 $ 3.2. The most severe consequence of a hurricane is the loss of a life, which neither can be replaced nor repaired. http://www.nhc.noaagov/HAW/day1/marine_safety.htm Sphere to Event Interactions:
B>E: Forecasters generally have a tough time figuring out how just strong a hurricane will ultimately become. New satellite data currently being developed may help to find how strong a hurricane is going to be at that time. In the past, hurricanes quickly came upon us. A tropical cyclone, or hurricane, would appear virtually out of nowhere, destroy whatever structures might lie in its path and suck unsuspecting coastal residents out to sea. While the damage potential of hurricanes hasn't changed over time, the monitoring of nature's greatest storms has improved dramatically. With such monitoring, humans can prepare themselves for future hurricanes and spare their lives. http://www.explorezone.com/archives/99_10/20_hurricane_satellites.htm” Resources: http://encarta.msn/com/encnet/refpages/RefArticles.aspx?refid=7615659952.htm http://www.wetmap.org/Cape_Hatteras?Suppliment/ch_background.htm http://www.nitrate.com/nov99.htm http://lternet.edu/hfr/data/hf002/hf002.html http://www.uga.edu/srel/hugo.htm http://www.explorezone.com/archives/99_09/20_hurricane_benefits.htm http://ww2010.atmos,uiuc.edu(Gh)mtr/hurr/dmg/home.rxml http://www.howstuffworks.com/hurricane5.htm
The Hydrosphere:
The hydrosphere is often called the “water sphere” as it includes all the earth’s water that is found in streams, lakes, the soil, groundwater, and in the air. The hydrosphere interacts with, and is influenced by, all the other earth’s spheres. Water is held in oceans, lakes, and streams at the surface of the earth. Water is found in vapor, liquid, and solid states in the atmosphere. The largest amount of water storage is in the oceans, which contain over 97% of the earth’s water. Most of this water is salt water. The average depth of the oceans is 3,794m (12,447 ft), more than five times the average height of the continents. (Http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/RefArticle.aspx?=761569459¶=6). Ice caps, like those found covering Antarctica, and glaciers that occupy high alpine locations compose a little less than 2% of all water found on Earth. Water beneath the surface comprises the next largest storage of water. Groundwater and soil water together make up about .5% of all water (by volume). (http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/modules/hydrosphere/hydrosphere.html) In Latin, hydro means water. Anything that scientists describe, when it comes to water, is a part of the hydrosphere. Water in its purest form is H20 and it is a small molecule that is very busy. (Http://www.geography4kids.com/files/water_hydrosphere.html)
Event to Sphere Interactions:
E>H As the storm brings in increased wave and current action; salt water is forced into fresh water estuaries and bayous. (http://hurricanes.noaa.gov/prepare/surge.htm)
E>H Hurricanes will blow sea water into fresh water, such as lakes and streams, due to the extreme wind speed of the storm causing a disturbance in ph balance of the fresh water (of course, this would not be beneficial for any living thing that depended on that fresh water). Winds in a hurricane are at least 74 mph or higher so the wind can send the salt water anywhere. (Http://kids.earth.nasa.gov/archive/hurricane/index.html)
E>H Hurricanes will blow other contaminates, such as raw sewage, paper, anything not contained, in to sea water and fresh water streams and lakes or drinking water due to the excess amount of winds. At least 74 mph or higher of winds will send anything anywhere. These contaminates could cause water to be contaminated and unfit for human consumption. (Http://kids.earth.nasa.gov/archive/hurricane/index.html; http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/RefArticle.aspx?refid=761565992
E>H As the storm approaches the coastline; the ocean levels rise about 15 feet or more. As a hurricane makes landfall, it brings with it a large dome of water often 50-100 miles wide called the storm surge. This surge is caused by strong onshore winds pushing the surface of the ocean ahead of the storm. This surge of water, topped by wind caused waves, causes considerable (perhaps the greatest) threat to life and property as it sweeps along the coastline. Combined with the occurrence of an astronomical high tide, this surge reaches its greatest height and can cause severe flooding of coastal areas. A very strong hurricane over shallow offshore water produces an even higher surge of ocean water as determined by the slope of the continental shelf. http://kids.mtpe.hq.nasa.gov/archive/hurricane/damage.html; http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Library/Hurricanes/hurricanes_3.html; http://hurricanes.noaa.gov/prepare/surge.htm
E>H Hurricanes can produce torrential rainfall in just a matter of minutes which can cause severe flooding of rivers, streams, streets, and towns, especially in low lying basin areas. The rainfall is so much that the already wet ground cannot absorb the volume that is accumulating and therefore causes the water to spill out and rise above normal water heights. (http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/RefArticle.aspx?refid=761565992) Along the edges of the storm are dense bands of thunderstorms spiraling slowly and often extending a few hundred miles from the center of the storm. These rain bands range in width from a few miles to tens of miles, and can be 50 to 300 miles long. (http://hurricanes.noaa.gov/prepare/structure.htm)These thunderstorms often produce widespread rainfall of 6-12 inches, heaviest usually about 6 hours before and 6 hours after making landfall. Slow moving storms often produce the greatest amounts of often-torrential rains. In 1979, Tropical Storm Claudette dumped 45 inches of rain near Alvin, Texas. In North Carolina in 1999, Hurricane Dennis dropped 6 inches of rain followed by days of intermittent thunderstorms. Ten days later, Hurricane Floyd dumped 15-20 inches of rain across the state. Torrential rains can quickly cause rivers and creeks to rise and overflow their banks washing away roads, bridges, houses, fields, and livestock. http://hurricanes.noaa.gov/prepare/rains.htm; http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Study/FloydIntro/ E>H Flooding is often produced from the large amounts of rain dropped once the hurricane makes landfall. This can be intensified if the storm encounters another weather system. This occurred in 1969 when Hurricane Camille combined with an existing cold front in the mountains of central Virginia, dropping 30 inches of unexpected rain. http://hurricanes.noaa.gov/prepare/rains.htm; http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Study/FloydIntro/ E>H Large amounts of rain can occur more than 100 miles inland causing flash floods, which wash away roads and bridges. (http://hurricanes.noaa.gov/prepare/rains.htm) In 1996, Typhoon Violet slammed into Tokyo, Japan, dropping 10 inches of rain in a 24-hour period resulting in flooding and landslides. (http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Study/ReckoningWinds/ ) In the year 2000, Typhoon Xangsane produced the worst floods Taiwan had had for 30 years. (http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Study/Seawinds/)In 1995, Hurricane Opal made landfall and dropped 15.45" on Ellyson, Florida, which washed away roads and caused flash flooding in the area. (Http://www.2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/hurr/damg/flod.rsml)
E>H Torrential rains and flooding can contaminate water supplies for communities when sewage treatment plants are flooded. When this occurred in North Carolina in 1999, after the Tar River overflowed its banks, the water was deemed unusable for drinking or bathing fearing it harbored dangerously high levels of coliform bacteria from fecal sources. (http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Study/FloydIntro/)
E>H Large amounts of floods and rains from the storm can result in sediment, debris, and pollutants (including sewage and carcasses of dead animals) being washed into the coastal waters from the rivers. (http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Study/FloydIntro/) In 1999, Hurricane Floyd caused the mixing of the sediment washed into the coastal waters to be much deeper than normal, re-suspending sediments that had settled on the continental shelf nearly 200 meters below the surface. This was supported by images from remote sensing data such as the Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-view Sensor (SeaWiFS). (http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Study/FloydSediment/)
E>H Rivers can become polluted from the debris felled during the storm. There can be changes in levels of salt and oxygen. In the days following Hurricane Floyd, there were drops in levels of dissolved oxygen in the Pamlico River. This was attributed to outflow from swamps and decomposing organic matter in the flood runoff. Also, there were drops in salinity levels, which had been high due prevailing drought conditions. These changes were attributed to the massive outflow of the highly polluted freshwater. The dissolved oxygen levels recovered within weeks; however, it took months for the salinity levels to return to normal levels. (http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Study/FloydFear/fear.html)
Sphere to Event Interactions:
H>E As long as the hurricane is over the water and the water is heated up, already; this will cause a hurricane to gain strength and become stronger, and move faster. (Http://www.miamisci.org/hurricane/howhurrwork.html?310,177)
H>E Hurricanes require a continuous supply of water to replace what is lost in the form of raindrops. This is replenished by freshly evaporated water from the ocean that travels up the storm’s eyewall through convective activity and condenses in the air above the storm forming cloud droplets, which are then encompassed as part of the thunderstorms. If the storm continues to move above the ocean’s surface encountering new sources of moist sea air, it continues to thrive. However, without this constant supply of evaporated water, the thunderstorms that make up a hurricane would eventually rain themselves dry and the low-pressure system at the center the storm would die out and the hurricane would cease to exist! http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/cgi-in/texis/webinator/printall?/Study/HurricaneHeart/index.html
H>E Any storm system that contained moisture (i.e. rain) that would encounter a hurricane, either on land or in the water, would only create a larger storm than would normally be. The already low pressure and heated warm water that helps to create the hurricane when combined with another storm could create a larger hurricane or more devastating torrential rains and flooding. (Http://www.miamiscie.org/hurricane/insideahurricane.html)
Casual Chains with the Earth’s Spheres:
A>H>E>H>B Hurricane damage results from wind and water. Hurricane winds can uproot trees and tear off roofs from houses. The fierce winds also create danger from flying debris. Winds from a hurricane can reach from 75 miles per hour to 160 miles per hour. It is difficult for the winds to be measured during a hurricane because sometimes the measuring devices are destroyed. Debris that is produced by the storm may become dangerous to people and animals who are in the path during the storm. The debris can end up in an ocean, river, or creek. This pollutes the water source and habitat of various animals. The pollution can cause the habitats to be destroyed or the water to harmful for life. The uprooted trees can cause mudflows or flooding. If flooding occurs valuable nutrients could be washed away.
E>A>B>L Wind damage is also a common occurrence during a hurricane. Hurricane force winds, which are defined 74 mph or more, can demolish poorly designed buildings and mobile homes. Debris, such as signs, roofing material, siding and small items left outside, become flying projectiles during a hurricane. Hurricane winds are also a major factor in storm surges. Hurricane strength winds are often felt well inland. The velocity of the winds may uproot trees and other plants. Permanent damage could occur well inland. The various layers of the lithosphere could also be worn away and as damage power lines, businesses and homes. Injuries may occur to those who choose to ride the storm out or those attempting to assist those in need. Flying debris could also be a hazard to humans and animals. http://hids.earth.nasa.gov/archive/hurricane/damage.html http://members.aol.com/windgusts/Dennis.html
E>L>B>H Widespread torrential rains often in excess of six inches can be associated with a hurricane. Deadly and destructive flooding is a major threat not only to coastal areas, but areas well inland as well. Floodwater will wash away the layer of topsoil and as a result, it will be tougher for plants to gain the nourishment for regrowth. Trees and other plants would at risk of being swept away by the swift water. Valuable sediments will be deposited in another location. Bridges and roads may wash away. Farmlands away from the shore could also be damaged by the high water. Crops and others food sources could be ruined by the rising water. High water levels could waste disposal plants of all kinds and landfills. Animal wastes from large farms could also be swept away by the rising water. Fertilizers, pesticides and various other chemicals could be washed into the streams, rivers, etc. The remains of dead animals will also be swept into the water. Humans and other animals could become sick from the contaminated water. Water supplies could be affected for a long time after the hurricane has passed.
E>H>L>B The most dangerous effect of a hurricane, however, is the rapid rise in sea level called a storm surge. A storm surge is produced when winds drive ocean water ashore. Storm surges are dangerous because many coastal are densely populated and lie only a few feet or meters above sea level. A 1970 cyclone in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) produced a surge that killed about 266,000 people. A hurricane in Galveston, Texas, in 1900 produced a surge that killed 6,000 people, the worst natural disaster in United States history. During a storm surge as much as 6 inches of rain can fall. These storm surges can also cause a problem of flooding and mudslides. Flooding depends on a number of factors such as storm speed, other weather systems, terrain and the amount of water absorbed in the ground. If flooding occurs layers of topsoil could be washed away, which in turn would affect the valuable nutrients needed by plants. http://hurricanes.noaa.gov http://www.aolsvc.worldbook.aol.com
E>L>A A problem facing many places in South America is mudslides, due to hurricanes and other tropical storms. A mudslide is when a hillside shifts and sends mud, rocks, and trees rumbling down its slope. Homes and property are buried or swept away. People are left homeless, injured, or even killed. Each year there are thousands of people killed from land and mudslides. In the U.S. alone there are between 25 and 50 people killed annually. Any area that is populated with mountains is at risk of having a mudslide when it is moving down a slope can devastate anything that is in its path. Typhoon Lekima came with a force into Taiwan in September of 2001 and along with it were several mudslides, which caused airports to shut down and power to be cut off. The eye of the typhoon came ashore on Wednesday and the major damage started being reported on Thursday. Just a couple of months previously in July there was a very deadly typhoon that caused landslides and floods that killed 200 people in central and eastern Taiwan. http://www.redcross.org/services/disaster/keepsafe/hurricane.html http://www.fema.gov/library/landslif.htm
E>L>B Erosion can occur after a hurricane. Hurricanes are to blame for 80% of the erosion of Florida’s coastline. The two hurricanes that hit the coast of the Gulf of Mexico in 1995 were massive. They left the sugar-white beaches flatter and 70 feet narrower. The sand from the seven miles of beaches was deposited elsewhere. When this type of erosion takes place, people’s lives are effected. Their homes may be lost, destroyed, or heavily damaged. Plants and animals that once lived on the beach are now homeless and have to seek shelter elsewhere. Erosion can also effect seagrass. Sea grass acts as a barrier between the mainland and the coastline and has developed into an extremely productive system and is critical to the survival of may species such as snails’, crustaceans, bivalves, fish, sea turtles, marine mammals and birds. However, hurricanes can cause materials from adjacent islands to be swept up and deposited, burying seagrass. The loss of edible seagrass can affect many birds, such as the egrets, herons, gulls and Red head duck, and pelicans. It can affect their nesting habits and breeding ground hits. http://www.naplesnews.com/hurricane/d241293a.htm The Usborne Encyclopedia of Planet Earth, Usborn Publishing, London England Clark, Flint, Hare & Twist, 91995). Encyclopedia of Our Earth, Shooting Star Press. http://www.unesco.org/csi/act/cosalc/project9.htm
E>H>B>L>B What is a storm surge? When hurricanes move ashore, they bring with them a storm surge of ocean water along the coastline with both torrential rains and flooding. A storm surge is simply water that is pushed toward the shore by the force of the winds swirling around the storm. Storm surge damage is caused a large dome of water often 50 to 100 miles wide that sweeps across the coastline near where a hurricane makes landfall. It can be more than 15 feet deep at its peak. The surge of high water topped by waves is devastating. Roads and bridges can be washed away by flash flooding, or can be eroded with some soil washed out to the ocean. In turn, with soil washed out to sea, plants have a harder time establishing new roots and returning to the same coastline. Coastlines may be further inland than before.
E>H>B Storm surge affects rivers and inland lakes, potentially increasing the area that must be evacuated. Over the years, “storm surge” flooding was the major cause of hurricane deaths, but has accounted for only a half of dozen hurricane deaths from 1970 through 2000 thanks to better forecasts and evacuations. The surge is till a potential killer and is the primary reason coastal areas are evacuated. Howling winds around the hurricane’s eye create storm surge by piling water up in an area. As a storm nears land, the rising sea floor blocks the water’s escape and it comes ashore as deadly storm surge. An intense hurricane can send a dome of water more than 18 feet deep ashore as the storm hits land. This massive amount of water may bring debris into inland lakes and rivers. With the contamination of the water by this debris, fish, frogs, and other life in the waters are affected. Fish will struggle to survive and may actually be displaced by such a large increase in the volume of water.
E>H>L>B Flood damage occurs when a widespread of torrential rains often in excess of 6 inches produces deadly and destructive floods. Widespread rainfall of 6 to 12 inches or more is common during landfall, frequently producing deadly and destructive floods. The risk from flooding depends on a number of factors; the speed of the storm, its interaction with other weather systems, the terrain it encounters, and ground saturation. Even storms with relatively light winds can be very damaging. The heaviest rains are usually found in slower moving storms. The heaviest rain usually occurs in the right front quadrant and with in a period of 6 hours before and 6 hours after landfall. This is a major threat to areas well inland. Flooding can cause erosion of the soil inland. Also, when the soil is washed away, plants can no longer thrive. Plants need the minerals in the soil. When flooding occurs, the mineral rich soil can be displaced or washed away. This in turn will change the makeup of the land. This would be especially devastating to farmers who depend on their crops for their income.
Summary:
Hurricanes are one of Mother Nature’s natural phenomena and can produce widespread damage to all 4 spheres of the Earth. The resulting damage could total billions of dollars or may even have the high price of death for some. Learning about Hurricanes, how and where they move can help to hopefully prevent possible deadly devastation. Hurricanes are monitored more effectively due to technological advances. Weather satellite images have improved our ability to detect and track severe weather. In 1999, NASA launched Quick Scatterometer (QuickSCAT) which uses specialized microwave radar to measure near surface wind speed and direction over the Earth’s oceans under all weather and cloud conditions greatly increasing available information. NASA’s Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) was launched in 1997 with advanced computer instruments including precipitation radar, visible and infrared scanner, and lightning imaging sensors. Added to other weather observations and data, these data and images increase our ability to determine a storm’s location, direction, structure, and strength. Increased ability to understand the storm allows analysts time to warn the public in order to prepare for a storm’s arrival and potential threat. Hopefully, these technological advances will allow scientists to analyze the storms to determine the amount of energy released into the atmosphere and whether they affect global weather. (http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Library/Hurricanes/hurricanes_6.html; http://kids.mtpe.hq.nasa.gov/archive/hurricane/creation.html) Although hurricanes are wild and furious and can neither be tamed nor stopped, they can be monitored and studied. Costly damage to property and lives could be mitigated by thorough preparation if communication is maintained to the public and life-saving measures are taken to prevent even more disasters and death.
RESOURCES: http://www.miamisci.org/hurricane/howhurrwork.html?310,177 http://msnbc.com/modules/slideshow/hurricane_990913/slideshow.asp http://ww2010.atmos.uniuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/hurr/home.rxml http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/RefArticle.aspx?refid=761569459¶=6) http://kids.earth.nasa.gov/archive/hurricane/index.html http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Library/Hurricanes/hurricanes_6.html http://kids.mtpe.hq.nasa.gov/archive/hurricane/creation.html http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/modules/hydrosphere/hydrosphere.html http://www.geography4kids.com/files/water_hydrosphere.html http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/cgi- http://in/texis/webinator/printall?/Study/HurricaneHeart/index.html http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Study/FloydIntro/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Study/FloydSediment/ http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Study/FloydFear/fear.html Http://www.2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/Gh)/guides/mtr/hurr/damg/flod.rsml http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Study/Seawinds/ http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Study/ReckoningWinds/ http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Study/ReckoningWinds/ http://hurricanes.noaa.gov/prepare/rains.htm http://hurricanes.noaa.gov/prepare/rains.htm http://hurricanes.noaa.gov/prepare/rains.htm http://hurricanes.noaa.gov/prepare/structure.htm http://kids.mtpe.hq.nasa.gov/archive/hurricane/damage.html http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Library/Hurricanes/hurricanes_3.html http://hurricanes.noaa.gov/prepare/surge.htm http://www.cotf.edu/ete/modules/sevweath/swwhatare.html http://www.cotf.edu/ete/modules/sevweath/swintensity.html http://kids.mtpe.hq.nasa.gov/archive/hurricane/creation.html http://www.cotf.edu/ete/modules/sevweath/swhoware.html http://www.usatoday.com/weather/hurricane/whclimo.htm
Submitted by Team Navigators: (Christa Bolton, Dorinda South, Stacie White, Joshua Winters, and Chris Higginbottom,) UNA GE601